This article examines Erich Fromm’s concept of religion, presenting religion as any shared system of orientation and devotion that gives human life meaning, and distinguishing between authoritarian and humanistic forms of religious life.

This article examines Émile Durkheim’s concept of religion, presenting religion as a fundamentally social phenomenon grounded in the distinction between the sacred and the profane, functioning as a primary mechanism of social integration and collective identity.

This article analyzes Max Weber’s concept of religion, presenting religion as a worldview that gives meaning to human existence and actively shapes social structures, economic behavior, and forms of rationality.

This article examines Karl Marx’s and Friedrich Engels’ understanding of religion, presenting it as an ideological and social phenomenon that emerges from material conditions, alienation, and class relations rather than from divine revelation.

This article examines Sigmund Freud’s concept of religion, presenting religion as a collective neurosis and psychological illusion arising from childhood dependency, unconscious conflict, and the human need for protection and security.

This article examines Ludwig Feuerbach’s understanding of religion, arguing that religion is not a divine reality but a projection of human essence, emotions, and ideals onto an imagined transcendent being.

This article analyzes the conceptual relationship between religion and ideology, arguing that both function as comprehensive worldviews and life projects, while the Qur’an distinguishes between true religion grounded in divine authority and false systems rooted in human construction.

This article analyzes the relationship between religion and belief, arguing that religion functions as an objective, divinely determined system, while belief represents a subjective, individual, and experiential dimension inherent to human nature.

This article examines how religion is conceptualized in Islamic literature, showing that Muslim scholars primarily define religion through Islam itself, emphasizing revelation, divine origin, and the unity of faith and practice as a comprehensive system guiding both individual and social life.

This article examines how religion has been conceptualized in Western literature by focusing on its anthropological, psychological, sociological, and philosophical interpretations, emphasizing religion’s functional and experiential dimensions rather than its metaphysical structure.

Ghazālī’s criticisms of Avicenna’s account of divine knowledge are examined through the problems of prayer, justice, prophecy, and the relationship between God’s knowledge and time.

A brief philosophical examination of what is meant by the claim attributed to Avicenna that “God does not know particulars,” focusing on divine knowledge, the universal–particular distinction, and Ghazālī’s objections to this view.